Tomislav, the First Crowned King of the Unified Croatian Kingdom on the Adriatic – Part 2

King Tomislav – consolidation and expansion of the Croatian Kingdom

Although Tomislav inherited a powerful and organised state, he was immediately threatened by the Magyars from the north and by the Bulgarians from the east. The banates of the former Adriatic Red Croatia (Zahumlje, Duklja and Travunia) remained subjected to the Byzantine Empire’s political and cultural influences, whilst Pannonian Croatia was subjected to the Frankish Empire. According to Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his work “De administrando imperio”, Tomislav’s army consisted of 100,000 infantry and 60,000 cavalry, whilst his navy consisted of 80 large ships (Sagenas, which transported 40 mariner-warriors each) and 100 small ships (Konduras, which transported 10 to 20 mariner-warriors each, excluding rowers). The population of Croatia, based on its military strength as stated by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, was estimated to be approximately 2 million.

From 898, the Magyars invaded and plundered Pannonian Croatia. As a result of the Magyar raids into Pannonian Croatia, Adriatic White Croatia and Pannonian Croatia renewed the political ties and the future Bans of Pannonian Croatia were no longer subordinate to Frankish kings but to Croatian Kings. In 914, Tomislav successfully defended his Croatian lands from Magyar raids, defeating them on several occasions on the territories of Adriatic White Croatia and Pannonian Croatia. Tomislav expanded his control into Pannonian Croatia and defended the northern stronghold of Sisak. After being totally defeated by the Croatian forces, the Magyars abandoned their aspirations of invading Rome, retreated over the Drava River, and refrained from waging wars against the Croatians for nearly two centuries. By 915, Pannonian Croatia was incorporated into the state of Adriatic White Croatia by Tomislav, and was no longer subordinate to Frankish kings. It is possible that Tomislav was formally proclaimed as king of a united Croatian Kingdom by Croatian chieftains and nobles when the two states were unified in 915. During the reign of Tomislav, the Venetian navy under the command of Bragadin was defeated in a naval battle near the island of Vis in 922.

By 921, the Bulgarians controlled nearly all of the Byzantine territories in the southern Europe, including Rascia (a former principality of Red Croatia which was inhabited by Croats and Serbs). In 924, Tsar Symeon I sent an army to crush the revolt in Rascia under the rule of Župan Zaharija, but the Bulgarians were insufficient in number and were defeated. It is likely that Tomislav aided Rascia in its battle against the Bulgarian Empire. After the defeat, Symeon I commenced peace talks with the Byzantine Empire, but summoned a large army against Rascia with the support of Časlav Klonimirović. Upon news of the impending invasion, Župan Zaharija and some of the Rascians fled to Croatia, to the protection of Tomislav. The Bulgarian army devastated Rascia, imprisoned many of the nobles, and relocated most of the population to Bulgaria, while some escaped to the Byzantine Empire.

Under the imminent threat from the powerful Bulgarian Emperor Symeon I, in circa 923, King Tomislav, Byzantine Emperor Romanus Lecapenus, Patriarch Nicolas Mysticus of Constantinople and Pope John X were involved an agreement that formally transferred the control of Byzantine Dalmatian islands and cities of the Theme of Dalmatia to Croatia (including Krk, Cres, Rab, Zadar, Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik and Kotor). Tomislav was given the honorary title of Protector (proconsul) of the Theme of Dalmatia, and was provided with a crown sent from Byzantium. In 924, Tomislav of Croatia was formally and internationally recognised as the King of Dalmatia and Croatia by the Holy See through his acceptance of the crown from the Pope. Tomislav was formally referred to by Pope John X as “…Tomislav, King of the Croats (Tamisclao, regi Chroatorum)”.

According to the Annals of Bari, on Monday, 10 July 926, during the feast day of St. Felicitas, Croatian forces under the supreme command of King Tomislav achieved a significant military victory by conquering the southern Italian city of Siponto in Apulia. The chronicle states that Tomislav dispatched his entire army and navy, led by Ban Mihajlo Višević (referred to by the chronicler as rex Sclavorum), with the mission to expel the Saracens from southern Italy and liberate the city of Siponto. Although they did not maintain permanent control over the city, some regions of southern Italy were settled by the Croats, who were eventually assimilated into the local population by the 12th century.

In 927, Bulgarian Tsar Symeon I made preparations to conquer the newly established Kingdom of Croatia and its vassal states of Zahumlje, Duklja and Travunia (under the rule of Ban Mihajlo Višević). Although the Bulgarian Empire and the Kingdom of Croatia were at peace at the time, Symeon I wanted to conquer the Croats in order to punish them for their protection of the Rascians, and for also establishing political relations with the Byzantine Empire who the Bulgarians were at war with. Symeon I also feared that King Tomislav, as an ally of the Byzantines, would attack the Bulgarian state from the east if the Bulgarians launched another major military campaign against the Byzantine Empire. In Spring of 927, a large Bulgarian army invaded the Kingdom of Croatia from the east, but the Bulgarian advance was cut off by Tomislav’s forces in the mountain ravines. The Bulgarian army was completely decimated (cut down to a man) in the Battle of the Bosnian highlands, dated to 27 May 927. Upon hearing of the total defeat, Simeon I died of a heart attack, around 3 June 927. After the death of Symeon I “…the neighbouring peoples, Croats, Magyars, and others, decided to attack the Bulgarians.’’ Pope John X sent Bishop Madalbertus and Duke John of Cumae to Bulgaria to mediate a peace treaty between the Kingdom of Croatia and the Bulgarian Empire which was ruled by Symeon’s son Peter (927 to 969), as written in the Minutes of the Church Synod in Split in 928, and in the “Korčulan Codex”. At the time of the peace treaty, the Kingdom of Croatia was the most powerful state in south-eastern Europe.

Arabic sources also confirm the political and military power of the Croatian Kingdom under the rule of King Tomislav. During his rule, Tomislav continued with the long-lasting diplomatic relations and a military alliance with the western Arabic Saracens of the Emirate of Córdoba, which was first established in 762 between Ban Budimir Svetolik (752-780) and Abd-ar-Rahman I (756-788). The military alliance lasted until the rule of King Stjepan Držislav (969-997). Abd-ar-Rahman III, the most powerful Emir and Caliph of Córdoba (912-929) had official diplomatic deputies at the Croatian court of Tomislav, and as a sign that mutual respect and friendship, Tomislav and Abd-ar-Rahman III equally exchanged rich gold gifts and ruling insignia. Prior to the reign of Tomislav, rebel Arabic Saracen pirates frequently raided the Adriatic Coast, captured over 20,000 civilians, and sold them into slavery in the Caliph of Córdoba. During his rule, Tomislav negotiated with Abd-ar-Rahman III for the freeing of Croatian slaves who had the right to bear arms. In addition, many Croats migrated to Moorish Spain as diplomatic ties were strengthened. Through this process, the Croatians became the third most numerous ethnic groups in Moorish Spain after the Arabs and the Spaniards, and were commonly referred to as Maurohrvati (Moorish Croats). Many of the young men formed the Elite Guard of Slavic legionnaires (in excess of 6,000) and, under the command of Hadjib Badr (Badrov, an Islamised Croat originating from Korčula), became the shock troopers of the Moorish army. Abd-ar-Rahman III introduced Croatian legionnaires (referred to as saqaliba) into his court, to neutralise the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim Arab and Muslim Berber heritage. Many of the Croats rose to the ranks of generals, admirals, emirs and mayors in the Emirate of Córdoba. The Elite Guard aided Abd-ar-Rahman III in destroying the Berber rebellion, and drove out many of the rebels out of Spain and into Africa.

Source: A History of the Early Croats – Ante Mrkonjić

Bog i Hrvati

King Tomislav – years prior to and the Coronation 

King Tomislav – and the Roman Catholic Church